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Fires are a frequent and deadly hazard in densely populated refugee and IDP settlements. The UNHCR state that in 2021, over 3,000 fires were reported in refugee and IDP camps worldwide, many of which caused loss of life. A tent in a Syrian refugee camp is destroyed by fire. Shelters in camps are often made of flammable materials. The world’s largest refugee camp, Kutupalong in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has endured many devastating fires, including one in March 2021 that destroyed over 10,000 shelters and displaced 45,000 refugees. This is within the context of increased fire-risk caused by climate change, which is worsening the scale of wildfires worldwide as rising temperatures lead to longer and more destructive fire seasons.  Refugee and IDP camps are particularly vulnerable to fire because of the dense siting of often highly flammable shelters, the widespread use of fire for cooking, either on wood or LPG, and the predominance of camps in countries with hot, dry climates. There is an urgent need to use fire-resistant materials for shelters that can protect lives and restrict the spread of fire, but funding shortages, supply chain issues, political restrictions and fast-paced timescales limit options. Lime Stabilised Soil offers a low-cost, innovative solution which uses locally available, natural materials which can be mixed and applied by communities themselves. Kutupalong camp , exemplifies the challenges of providing fire-resistant housing in densely populated areas prone to disasters. Here, Lime Stabilised Soil (LSS) is emerging as a transformative building material offering win-win solutions in the most challenging of contexts.  How Lime Stabilised Soil Enhances Fire Safety LSS is a mixture of soil, lime, and sometimes pozzolans, which chemically bond to create a hardened material with remarkable fire-resistant properties. It can be applied as a plaster to traditional bamboo, wood or mud structures, and panels of bamboo and tarpaulin, but unlike bamboo and tarpaulin, LSS: Is Non-Flammable:  It does not ignite or spread flames, a critical feature in fire-prone environments. Provides Thermal Insulation:  LSS slows down heat transfer, helping to contain and minimise fire damage. Withstands Fire Exposure:  Tests conducted in Cox’s Bazar showed that while standard shelters burned down within minutes, LSS-plastered shelters remained intact after 20+ minutes of fire exposure. LSS can protect buildings from fires started internally or from external fires and inhibits spread of flame. LSS plaster is applied to split-bamboo wall panels. Photo (C) Bee Rowan Why LSS is Ideal for Displacement Contexts Beyond its fire-resistant qualities, LSS offers advantages that make it particularly suited to refugee and displacement settings: Locally Available and Affordable:  LSS relies on natural materials including lime and soil, which are available and low cost in most regions.  In line with regulations:  Sometimes host countries have laws prohibiting the use of permanent materials, like concrete, in refugee and IDP camps. As a natural material LSS can align with these regulations while still offering a durable solution. Multi-Hazard Resilience:  As well as fire resistance, LSS shelters can withstand monsoon rains and prolonged flood as LSS material remains strong and stable in water.  It also  gives increased thermal performance to the interiors of buildings, keeping buildings cooler in heatwaves and warmer in cold conditions. This makes LSS  a robust material choice for disaster-prone areas. Sustainability:  LSS can be carbon-neutral, providing a sustainable  alternative to cement based concrete as LSS  does not contribute to climate change. The use of cement is a global concern - if the cement industry were a country, it would be the third largest emitter of carbon dioxide in the world.  Success Stories: LSS in Action at Cox’s Bazar Re-alliance member and LSS expert Bee Rowan worked in Cox’s Bazar with IOM in 2023 on a pilot project to firstly test the viability of LSS in the Rohingya refugee camp context and after evidencing its success, trained teams to build 51 LSS plastered bamboo shelters. She told us how results demonstrated the effectiveness of LSS in addressing both fire and flood risks:  “ We built an LSS-plastered shelter and fire tested it in real-world conditions next to one of the standard bamboo shelters  built on a massive scale in the camps. There had just been a devastating fire in Camp 11 and everyone knew fire prevention had to become a priority as big camp fires were an annual occurrence. . The Rohingya workers  next to me were moved to tears as we watched the LSS building easily withstand 20 minutes of flames without burning, while the standard shelter next to it was engulfed by fire and fully destroyed within 5 minutes.”  Above - the fire test comparing a standard bamboo shelter (left) to a LSS-plastered shelter (right), both fired at the same time, with the same amount of accelerant and filled with the same calorific loading of flammable materials.  The standard shelter was entirely destroyed. After 20 minutes, when the fuel for the fire had been consumed, the LSS shelter was still intact, except for the bulk of the roof, which was the typical flammable tarpaulin roof. The LSS shelter design has now been adapted to include a fire-resilient LSS plastered roof. Photo (c) Bee Rowan. Training and Knowledge Sharing While there is great potential in LSS, further training and knowledge-sharing is needed for its successful and widespread use. To ensure the technology’s broader  adoption, projects need to include training of trainers, and of  local engineers, staff of implementing partners,  community workers, masons and householders.  Investing  resources into training and training of trainers can empower communities to take ownership of the construction process and its quality; creating employment opportunities, fostering resilience and enabling people to maintain and mend buildings far into the future. Bee Rowan has co-authored a Lime Stabilised Soil Construction Guide  (available free online, hosted by IOM) which takes readers through the steps needed to build successfully with field-tested lime and local sub-soils. Re-alliance also plans to include building with LSS in their free online course, coming in 2026.  Lime is slaked with water in a project in Nepal to make lime putty (C) Bee Rowan A Blueprint for Safer Settlements - improved vernacular design The introduction of LSS in refugee camp settings can offer a scalable, cost-effective and low carbon solution to one of the most deadly challenges faced by displaced populations. By addressing fire risks, improving resilience to environmental hazards, and aligning with building restrictions, LSS represents a step forward in shelter innovation. For displaced communities, LSS offers a way to adapt vernacular buildings to become safer and more resilient to climate change and its associated disasters. The lessons learned in Cox’s Bazar highlight the potential for this technology to be replicated in other high-risk settings worldwide.

Building Hope with Lime-Stabilised Soil: A Resilient Solution for Shelters in Cox’s Bazar Refugee Camps In the world's largest refugee settlement in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, over 1.2 million Rohingya refugees live in shelters made from bamboo and tarpaulin that struggle to withstand monsoons, floods, and devastating fires. An innovative project led by Strawbuild’s Bee Rowan, supported by Re-Alliance, has introduced Lime Stabilised soil as a resilient, low carbon and cost-effective solution for shelter building, which has been approved for use in the camps by the Bangladeshi government.  The tarpaulin roofs of the standard bamboo shelter often leak, are highly flammable and create high internal temperatures in the hot season What is Lime-Stabilised Soil (LSS)? LSS is a low-carbon, cost-effective building material that combines soil, lime, and local pozzolans (like rice husk ash or burnt brick dust) to create a durable, fire-resistant, and flood-resilient material. LSS can be used as a plaster over a structural frame, to form load-bearing bricks and blocks or as mortar between blocks. Most regions have local sources of lime, pozzolans and soils with a clay content, so unlike concrete, LSS can be produced locally, making it both affordable and more environmentally friendly. In contrast to cement, lime is not heated to extreme temperatures, giving it a far lower embodied energy with low to neutral associated carbon emissions.  Training and continued monitoring key to quality Building with lime needs investment in training and continued mix testing, meaning that it can take longer than building with cement. Durability is only assured when care is taken to test each mix and tailor the ratios needed to the specific ingredients used. When built with the right care and attention lime buildings can last thousands of years, such as in ancient Roman lime masonry still standing today. Lime can be mixed with soil to make resilient renders, plasters, bricks, blocks and mortars (c) Bee Rowan The Pilot Project in Cox’s Bazar With a £7,000 grant from Re-Alliance, the pilot project tested the feasibility of LSS in the camps. Working alongside engineers from the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and Rohingya refugees, Bee Rowan conducted testing to identify the best soil-lime mixtures for local conditions. The results were positive. Monsoon & Flood Resilience : LSS test mixes showed high compressive wet strength meaning it has the potential to withstand heavy rains and flooding without deteriorating. Adding LSS to the tarpaulin roof panels offers a durable waterproof cover for shelters. Fire Resistance : Following a devastating fire in Camp 11, fire tests were conducted on LSS-coated bamboo shelters. The results were staggering—while a traditional shelter burned down in five minutes, the LSS-plastered shelter remained intact even after 20 minutes of intense flames. Thermal Performance : The piloted LSS shelters provided much-needed insulation, keeping indoor temperatures significantly cooler during extreme heat waves. Involving the community: Although building with lime needs attention to detail and a closely followed process, it is not overly technical or complicated. This enabled community participation from Rohingya women and men, some of whom had past experience of plastering their homes before fleeing conflict. A fire test comparing the performance of a standard bamboo shelter (left) with an LSS plastered shelter (right). The design has since been modified to include an LSS roof screed to protect the roof from fire. Image (C) Bee Rowan. Scaling Up: A Major Breakthrough Thanks to the pilot's success, the Bangladesh government approved a pilot for IOM to build 50 LSS plastered shelters and LSS stabilised paths and steps. The shelters have performed well, leading to additional funding for IOM to build over  2,000 LSS shelters  as firebreaks across the camps. This is the first time LSS has been used at such scale in the camps and the hope is that quality practices can be maintained despite the pressures for volume building on a tight schedule. LSS-rendered Bamboo shelters built by IOM in Cox's Bazar (c) Bee Rowan The future for LSS Shelters in Displacement settings With growing interest from other organisations,  LSS has the potential to be used worldwide for shelters built following disaster and displacement. It has already been successfully used in Pakistan and Nepal, for reconstruction of homes destroyed by flooding and earthquakes showing that LSS is an adaptable material which can be used in many adapted vernacular designs. By reducing reliance on expensive and unsustainable materials, it offers a practical, scalable solution for safer, more resilient shelters in crisis-affected communities. Training key to success One of the key factors in the successful implementation of LSS is hands-on, in-person training. By engaging local engineers and communities directly, trainers ensure that knowledge is effectively transferred and adapted to the specific needs of each community and environment. While most soil types can be stabilised with lime, it is vital to get the right ‘recipe’ for each unique soil type and lime and pozzolan source. It is important that both donors and implementers understand that building with lime takes time and investment in monitoring mixes to ensure quality. To accompany training, Strawbuild and IOM have produced a guide to Lime Stabilised Soil building, available at: https://www.scribd.com/document/663893347/Lime-Stabilized-Construction-A-Manual-and-Practical-Guide   An LSS community training workshop in Nepal Re-Alliance are working on an online course which will include building with LSS as part of a regenerative shelter module. We are looking for examples of where Lime has been used in reconstruction or shelter provision, so please get in touch to share learnings. A rare opportunity in a challenging context New building materials are seldom approved for use in the Rohingya camps, so the government approval of LSS is a rare opportunity coming at a time when the Rohingya people are at greatest risk from aid cuts. It remains to be seen if quality assurance can be maintained in the face of tight deadlines and demands for quantity, but the more that agencies can work together to share learnings and skills and invest in training, the better the chances that LSS can achieve its potential. LSS represents a rare beacon of hope in the most challenging of contexts and could offer the Rohingya people access to shelters that are safer from fires, cooler in scorching temperatures and watertight in the heavy monsoons.

Severe cuts to international aid budgets have left millions struggling to meet their basic needs, from food and water to healthcare and housing. Funding reductions have affected communities across the Global South, particularly those already vulnerable due to conflict, displacement, and climate-related disasters. These cuts expose the failures of a system that fosters dependency while offering no long-term solutions. While aid remains crucial, this crisis underscores the urgency of supporting locally-led regenerative solutions that strengthen resilience and reduce reliance on external policies. For example, in Kenya’s Kakuma refugee camp, which shelters approximately 300,000 refugees, food rations have been reduced to just 40% of the minimum requirement due to funding shortfalls, leading to protests and clashes with police ( The Guardian ). In Malawi, severe funding reductions have forced humanitarian organisations to scale back food aid programs, leaving thousands of families facing acute hunger amid a worsening climate crisis ( Reuters ). Meanwhile, in Bangladesh, the United Nations has warned that food rations for Rohingya refugees may be cut in half due to ongoing funding shortages ( Reuters ). The recent aid cuts must serve as a wake-up call for the humanitarian and development sectors. We cannot continue relying on an extractive aid model that is at the mercy of political and economic shifts in donor countries. Instead, we must prioritise decolonial, solidarity-based, and non-extractive frameworks that place power and resources directly in the hands of communities leading their own regeneration. The False Promise of Aid Dependency For decades, mainstream humanitarian and development models have operated on a system of dependency, where communities facing crises are positioned as passive recipients of aid rather than active agents of their own recovery and regeneration. This model, while sometimes necessary in acute emergencies, has ultimately disempowered communities, reinforcing cycles of vulnerability rather than breaking them. Now, with drastic funding cuts, communities are left with even fewer resources to navigate increasingly complex challenges. These reductions are being imposed while we witness the sharp rise in extreme weather events, growing displacement crises, and widening inequalities. The logic is baffling: when the need is greatest, support is being withdrawn. Strengthening Resilience: The Power of Regenerative Approaches This crisis, however, underscores why shifting away from externally driven aid models towards strengthening grassroots agency is more essential than ever. Regenerative approaches  - such as those grounded in Agroecology, permaculture, indigenous knowledge systems, and nature-based solutions - offer a path towards true resilience. These approaches not only address immediate survival needs but also restore ecological and social health, ensuring that communities are equipped to withstand and adapt to future challenges. Winnie and Jean-Paul from the YICE Uganda team show the compost hey have been able to make using their ecological sanitation latrines. Across various displacement settings, regenerative projects are already proving their effectiveness in building resilience beyond aid dependency: Community Composting (Uganda – UNIDOS) :  By turning organic waste into nutrient-rich compost, UNIDOS, a refugee-led initiative, is improving soil health and enabling food production in settlements. This reduces reliance on external food aid and ensures families can cultivate their own food, enhancing their autonomy and long-term food security. Urban Agriculture (Cameroon – MOCGSE , Greece – Sporos Regeneration Institute ):  In Cameroon, MOCGSE has helped displaced communities reclaim underutilised spaces to grow fresh vegetables, reducing dependency on fluctuating food aid. In Greece, Sporos Regeneration Institute has trained refugees in Athens to establish urban and rooftop gardens, providing direct sources of nutrition and opportunities for cooperative food sales. EcoSan Latrines (Uganda – YICE ) : YICE Uganda has introduced Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) latrines in Nakivale refugee settlement, providing families - particularly those with disabled members - access to safe, dry toilets. These composting latrines transform human waste into nutrient-rich compost, which is then used to improve soil fertility for local food production. This closed-loop system reduces health risks, enhances agricultural productivity, and ensures that communities have sustainable sanitation solutions that do not depend on external aid. Home Gardens (Bangladesh – BASD ):  BASD has pioneered permaculture home gardens for displaced families and low-income households, demonstrating that even small spaces can be transformed into productive, diverse food-growing areas. These gardens improve food security, restore degraded land, and allow families to supplement their diets without depending on volatile aid supplies. Lime Stabilised Soil (Bangladesh – Bee Rowan & IOM ):  Re-Alliance supported LSS expert Bee Rowan to train Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar, collaboration with IOM,  to use locally available lime-stabilised soil to construct fire-resistant and durable shelters. This method reduces reliance on expensive imported building materials and empowers refugees with construction skills for long-term housing stability. By investing in regenerative solutions like these, communities can build food sovereignty, restore degraded landscapes, and create sustainable livelihoods. Unlike traditional aid models that impose external solutions, regenerative approaches center the knowledge, skills, and agency of those most affected by crisis. This is the foundation of genuine resilience - one that does not depend on volatile international aid budgets but rather on strengthening local systems of mutual aid, ecological stewardship, and cultural regeneration. Taking Action for a Resilient and Regenerative Future Now is not the time for retreat. Now is the time for transformation. It is time to move beyond dependency and towards regenerative resilience - where communities have the tools, knowledge, and resources to determine their own futures, free from the whims of donor countries. Aid cuts are leaving communities more vulnerable than ever, but grassroots solutions already exist, they just need support.  At Re-Alliance, we are committed to amplifying and supporting this essential work. Join Re-Alliance  today to connect with the expertise of over 300 organisations engaged in regenerative approaches. Together, we can collaborate, share knowledge, and implement real, community-led solutions that ensure long-term stability and autonomy. As part of this mission, Re-Alliance, in collaboration with YICE Uganda , is developing a pioneering community-led settlement design project that will create a replicable, regenerative settlement model for displaced communities. This initiative integrates housing, food production, sanitation, and renewable energy through participatory community planning, setting a new standard for humanitarian response. Your contribution - whether through funding, technical expertise, advocacy, or otherwise - can support us in making this vision a reality. We invite you to join us in this urgent and transformative work, email us at contact@re-alliance.org  to discuss how you can support this effort financially, with your expertise, or in other ways. Join us in supporting community-led regenerative solutions. Because resilience, sovereignty, and regeneration are not just possible, they are essential.

For decades, refugee communities have found ways to grow food in even the most challenging environments. In Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, home to the largest Rohingya refugee camp in the world, home gardens have emerged as a crucial strategy for improving food security, health, and well-being. A recent research project conducted between 2022 and 2025 by Re-Alliance, in collaboration with the Food Security Cluster and Rohingya student researchers from the Asian University for Women, examines the costs and benefits of these gardens. The Growing Need for Food Security With cuts in humanitarian aid, the Rohingya population in Cox’s Bazar has faced severe food shortages. In 2023, food assistance was reduced to $8 per person per month, increasing only marginally over time. While this has since been increased in line with earlier figures, recent changes by large governments in relation to the provision of aid, mean that food subsidies continue to be threatened and will, for the immediate future be cut to 50% of what were already minimal rations. With limited resources and high levels of food insecurity, organisations such as the World Food Programme (WFP), FAO, BRAC, and others have introduced home gardening as a sustainable food source. However, growing food in Cox’s Bazar is not easy. Limited space, poor soil quality, extreme weather, and pests create significant challenges. Despite this, over 1,000 small gardening projects were recorded in 2022, demonstrating a substantial investment in food-growing initiatives. By 2023, 14 organisations were actively involved in these programs, with various levels of success and impact. In densely populated areas like Cox's Bazar, organisations like BASD encourage residents to grow in whatever spaces they can, including on rooftops and along fences. Evaluating Success: How Do Home Gardens Help? The research surveyed 14 organisations implementing home gardening programs and interviewed 159 refugee households. The study sought to answer key questions: Are home gardens still being effectively used? What are the costs, inputs, and approaches of different organisations? What benefits do households experience in terms of food security, health, and well-being? Can home gardens compensate for reductions in food aid? Findings: A Mixed Picture of Challenges and Successes The results showed that 93% of gardens remained in use seven to eleven months after being established. Households reported numerous benefits, including: Improved food security : Many families had better access to fresh vegetables, reducing their dependence on external aid. On average, households with gardens harvested a wide range of produce annually, between 7-195 kg, depending on the organisation supporting them. Health benefits : Respondents reported increased energy, better nutrition, and improved overall well-being. Some families noted weight gain and fewer illnesses. Income generation : Some households earned between 100-2,500 BDT by selling surplus produce, helping them supplement their household income. Psychosocial benefits : Green spaces contributed to mental health, reduced stress, and provided a sense of home, particularly for women and elderly members of the community. Costs and Yields: Breaking Down the Figures A comparative analysis of the different organisations implementing home gardens revealed significant variations in investment and outcomes: Action Aid : Invested 33.6 million BDT ($276,000) for 10,000 gardens, costing approximately $27.6 per garden, with an average yield of 195 kg per household. BRAC : Spent 97 million BDT ($797,000) for 15,000 gardens, with a per-garden cost of $53 and an average yield of 180 kg. Concern (BRPM & SARPV) : Costs per garden ranged from $11.7 to $11.8, but yields were lower at 7-12 kg. Dan Church Aid : Spent 72.8 million BDT ($600,000) for 5,000 gardens, at a cost of $12 per garden, yielding 50-60 kg per household. Mukti : With a budget of 440,800 BDT ($36,000) for 6,500 gardens, the per-garden cost was only $5.5, yet some recorded household yields of up to 626 kg. BASD Permaculture Approach : Cost per garden was estimated at $13.2 for training and stipends, with host community gardens yielding up to 1,000 kg per year, significantly outperforming other interventions. As can be seen from these results The Bangladesh Association for Sustainable Development (BASD) a chieved far higher yields than other projects. While they were surveyed 5 years after training, and other projects just under one year, it could be that yields in other places would improve significantly over time. Additionally, different ways of reporting and recording between organisations make a direct comparison difficult to achieve. Nonetheless, results indicate that while Permaculture approaches required more training and effort initially, they resulted in significantly higher yields over time, making them a more sustainable option. Challenges in Home Gardening Despite the benefits, refugees faced significant obstacles: Space constraints : Many gardens had to rely on vertical or rooftop gardening due to limited land. Rooftop gardens, however, were vulnerable to extreme weather conditions. Climate-related threats : Flooding, monsoons, droughts, and high winds often damaged crops and eroded topsoil, making consistent gardening difficult. Lack of tools and resources : Refugees reported needing more bamboo, seeds, and water-saving techniques to sustain their gardens. Many also lacked fertilizers and pest control solutions. Cultural and gender barriers : Some women found it difficult to engage in gardening activities due to social norms and restrictions, particularly in tasks like climbing onto rooftops or managing composting. Some of these challenges are apparent in the much higher yields gained by all organisations working with host communities, where hosts have better soils, more space and a greater familiarity with the local environment.  Salam, this is my tiny permaculture garden. I do not have extra space for gardening. I got PDC from BASD and started gardening. My neighbours also followed me observing my garden. I didn't know much about gardening earlier but now I know its importance, good food and poisonous food. I planted in a very small area some plants of bottle gourd, sweet pumpkin, bringet, chilli, tomato etc. Me and my family members enjoy food from our garden. I do sell a surplus of vegetables. I give thanks to BASD for giving us such a beautiful training.  - Siraj of Camp 19 at Cox's Bazar shares his garden and experience of working with BASD Is Permaculture the Answer for Refugees? Initially it would seem that Permaculture can make a significant difference.  Bangladesh Association for Sustainable Development (BASD) have for 6 years helped households integrate regenerative, self-sufficient gardening practices using composting, water conservation, and organic methodologies. Their methods involve training community leaders, who then teach others, creating a cascading effect. First introduced into Bangladesh by Rosemary Morrow, a renowned Permaculture teacher, author and co-founder of Re-Alliance's sister organisation Permaculture4Refugees , in 2018 they claim to have started the campaign for home gardening in Cox’s Bazar and established the very first gardens. They are now offering training to other organisations. Rosemary Morrow published  ‘The Earth Restorer’s Guide to Permaculture’ in 2022 and the director of BASD has since translated this entirely into Bengali.  Their Permaculture training consists of a 72 hour course spread over 15 days, significantly longer than the 5 hour or 5 day trainings that other organisations offered to home gardeners. Rather than provide them with tools or seeds they offer each a small stipend, (around $10 USD), to purchase these things, encouraging them to share knowledge, tools and seeds with the others they train. This creates a sense of ownership among gardeners who become social innovators at the same time.  Despite BASD trainees being surveyed 5 years after training while other gardens were seen up to one year later.compared to traditional gardening approaches, Permaculture yielded significantly higher returns. Their approach required minimal financial input after the initial setup, proving to be a cost-effective and sustainable solution. Additionally, Permaculture-trained households reported greater resilience against climate challenges due to improved soil quality and water management techniques. What Can Be Done Next? The study highlighted key recommendations for future interventions: Develop better evaluation methods : Traditional cost-benefit analyses fail to capture the full impact of gardening initiatives. New metrics that consider social and psychological benefits are needed as well as more consistent approaches to record keeping by different organisations within the food security cluster.  Incorporate traditional agricultural knowledge : Programs should be designed with input from refugees who have farming experience. This can help improve crop selection and farming techniques in the camp environment. Scale up successful interventions : Permaculture and other regenerative approaches should be expanded. Training should be provided not just for growing food, but also for seed saving, composting, and climate adaptation techniques. Recognise non-food benefits : The psychological and social impacts of gardening should be considered in program planning. Green spaces can contribute to well-being, stress reduction, and community bonding. Improve access to resources : Providing better tools, seeds, water-saving irrigation methods, and training opportunities can increase the sustainability of home gardens. Conclusion Home gardens in Cox’s Bazar have proven to be more than just a means of food production. They empower refugees, provide nutritional and economic benefits, and contribute to mental well-being. While challenges remain, investing in regenerative approaches inspired by Permaculture can enhance the long-term resilience of displaced communities. With ongoing support and innovation, home gardening could become a vital strategy for ensuring food security and dignity for the Rohingya and other refugee populations worldwide. By refining approaches, integrating traditional knowledge, and ensuring long-term sustainability, humanitarian organisations can make a lasting impact in these vulnerable communities.

When disasters strike, saving lives becomes the top priority. In the urgency and chaos of immediate response, speed can take precedence over long-term planning or ecological considerations. The humanitarian sector is structured to respond rapidly, often relying on pre-designed plans to deliver aid and address critical needs. But what could it look like if these immediate responses to disasters could also be regenerative? Could we find ways for responses to be holistic, culturally embedded, and inspired by the ecosystems they are part of? How might we integrate environmental care and nature-based solutions into our rapid response? When we consider regenerative responses, we often focus on the time before or after disasters. We usually either think about Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) to grow resilience before a disaster - or, as Sarah Queblatin reframes it - Designing for Resilience and Regeneration . Then after a disaster and initial response has occurred, we come to recovery and redevelopment, where there are many excellent examples and case studies of Regenerative and Permaculture designed approaches  to meeting the needs of communities who have faced, or even been displaced by, disasters. Tinka John of KAFRED Uganda  emphasises, "Firstly, it’s about awareness and education. We need to teach people how to read and understand their ecosystems. If they know the importance of each element of an ecosystem and how they relate to one another, they might understand the importance of healthy ecosystems and eventually may know how to build the health and resilience of their ecosystems. That way, they can better respond to disasters and shocks." Tinka’s insight points to the need for ecological literacy, where people can read their landscapes and respond to its needs when it’s damaged. When communities have a deep understanding of their local ecosystems they can act as stewards, leveraging the interconnections within living systems to recover more effectively. Yet still, this speaks to learning which needs to happen months or years before a disaster strikes. It can take years to become socialised into nature-inspired ways of thinking. So what about times of urgent and emergency need? What about the moments when crises unfold? Can we still embed regenerative design principles into the way we act in emergencies? Ecological, Regenerative Design in Rapid Disaster Response Conventional humanitarian responses rightfully prioritise speed and efficiency, yet this often comes through a standardised approach across many contexts. This approach saves lives, and that should always be a top priority. However, standardised approaches can often overlook opportunities for cultural alignment and ecological care. To a regenerative or Permaculture designer, the idea of acting in a ‘high speed’ way might seem counter intuitive. As Permaculture designers, we’re taught to be slow and to take time to observe. But in times of need, a rapid regenerative response is called for.  We can ask ourselves:  How might we work with nature, rather than against nature, in this scenario?  How might we integrate culturally significant practices, rather than erase them?  How might we use locally available and renewable resources where possible? Disaster-struck agrarian, land-based, indigenous or peasant communities often already respond in this nature-centric way, through cultural wisdom, necessity, and because disaster relief agencies may not be able to respond as quickly as needed. Ideas of what a nature-based response looks like in practice already exist, but humanitarian actors will need more solid plans in order to scale out these solutions. What is needed is an adaptable, regenerative process and plan that country offices of humanitarian agencies can work with to co-create a rapid response with their communities, in advance of when disasters happen. With climate chaos already wreaking havoc across the world, and with this set to increase, every community will need a plan. What’s needed for an Adaptive Rapid Regenerative Relief Plan An Adaptive Rapid Regenerative Relief Plan (A3RP) must be, as the name suggests, adaptive. Arguably, it wouldn’t be regenerative if it wasn’t adaptable, because all cultures and ecosystems have uniquenesses, and as such need a unique approach that integrates local elements rather than a ‘one size fits all’ solution. Regenerative approaches look different depending on the context, and they also go beyond ‘doing no harm’, seeking to grow the health of the communities and ecosystems they are part of. An A3RP could have a common structure ( an example community consultation guide is suggested here ) to make it easier for humanitarian organisations to operationalise and implement, but crucially it would integrate processes and plans inspired by living systems. Consultation and design processes should include the communities affected to integrate cultural wisdoms, traditional ecological knowledge, and also to build community cohesion. An A3RP approach may include: Ecosystem-Inspired Designs Healthy systems in nature are adept at responding to shocks. Left to its own devices after a wildfire, life takes mere moments to re-root and begin the (albeit slow) process of regrowth. Or for another example we could look to the flood defence skills that mangroves teach us, softening the blows of damaging coastal weather. Disaster response plans can mimic these systems by incorporating strategies found in nature: growing wind breaks and natural barriers; restoring degraded landscapes to slow, store and sink water; or using biomimicry to design infrastructure that can withstand environmental stressors. Traditional Ecobuilding Practices Many indigenous, land-based, peasant and traditional cultures have long histories of constructing shelter using renewable, locally sourced materials. These methods are often intrinsically aligned with their landscapes, sometimes looking almost as if they have emerged from the land. Crucially, they can sometimes be quicker to implement than Western-style shelter, though sometimes with a more complex materials supply chain (as you can't necessarily buy the materials quickly from a supplier, but may have to find renewable, living materials locally and test them for effectiveness). Ecobuilding for immediate post-disaster offers models for housing that if respectful of local culture, reduces dependency on external resources, and minimises carbon costs of flying or shipping materials. One example of these is traditional Filipino bamboo vernacular, which has been known to withstand strong typhoons. Celebrating Local Uniquenesses Food security is critical in immediate disaster responses, and a regenerative response would look toward locally adapted, preferably perennial, plant species to offer a source of food, fuel, medicine, and building materials, while also restoring and stabilising ecosystems. Similarly, local cultures may have found ways that are culturally significant to adapt to crises. Ceremonies and significant cultural customs can help communities come together to repair and regenerate after disasters or traumas. A Call for trialling Adaptive Rapid Regenerative Relief Plans in action A regenerative response is not necessarily a rejection of speed or efficiency, but a deepening of our understanding of the spaces in which we operate and the communities with whom we work. By learning from ecosystems and the wisdom of local cultures, humanitarian agencies can create interventions that not only save lives but also plant the seeds of ecological recovery and community resilience. As Tinka John reminds us, understanding and valuing ecosystems is the foundation for responding effectively to disasters. Whether through fostering ecological literacy, designing culturally and environmentally embedded plans, or leveraging the resilience of natural systems, a regenerative approach to disaster response has the potential to transform crisis into opportunity for both people and the planet. – Re-Alliance is an education and networking organisation comprising over 250 members applying regenerative approaches in disaster and displacement, and focussed on bringing regenerative solutions to the humanitarian sector. If you are part of a humanitarian agency and would like to discuss the A3RP approach in your contexts, reach out to the team on contact@re-alliance.org  or join the network at www.re-alliance.org/join .

In collaboration with Mycorama  (Greece) and Unidos  (Uganda), Re-Alliance has been supporting Minak in a transformative mushroom growing project aimed at cultivating sustainable livelihoods in the Nakivale refugee settlement. This initiative, deeply rooted in permaculture principles, empowers women by teaching them to grow nutritious mushrooms in reusable containers, a practice that not only provides food security but also fosters community and economic independence. Why Mushrooms Matter Mushrooms are more than just a food—they are a symbol of regeneration. For those who have been displaced, or have limited land on which to grow food, mushrooms offer a way to address several pressing needs at once. They provide a reliable source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, helping to combat malnutrition. They can be grown using local waste materials, reducing the need for costly inputs, and they turn what would otherwise be discarded into something valuable that can be used or sold in the local market.  The Nakivale refugee settlement, one of the largest in Uganda, is home to thousands of displaced individuals, many of whom are women and children. By training groups of women in mushroom cultivation the project contributes towards combating malnutrition, particularly among children, introducing a reliable source of protein, vitamins, and minerals. The process is simple yet impactful: enabling communities to enhance food security, generate income, and improve local environments, thus aligning perfectly with permaculture’s ethics of earth care, people care, and fair share. It’s about creating abundance in harmony with nature, using resources wisely, and ensuring that the benefits are shared by all.  Integrating mushroom cultivation into the local ecosystem provides immediate food and income while contributing to the long-term ecological health of the area. By growing in reusable containers with organic waste materials the method minimises environmental impact while maximising social and economic benefits. A Model for Regenerative Livelihoods The project is part of Re-Alliance’s wider Camps and Settlements Guidelines research, through which Re-Alliance is capturing learnings from regenerative practices applied in displacement contexts and developing a range of accessible learning materials.  We invite you to learn more about the process of growing mushrooms in reusable containers and explore how you can apply these methods in your own community. The Minak process has been compiled into a short instructional booklet as part of Re-Alliance’s ongoing research and learning initiatives. Download the illustrated booklet (with beautiful illustrations by Inga Orsi) for free from the Re-Alliance publications page. Try it out, and share your experience with us, we’d love your feedback—let’s grow resilience together. Download the illustrated guide below, and view our other resources on our publications page . This guide is currently being translated into a range of languages. If you would like this guide to be made available in a specific language please get in touch at contact@re-alliance.org  to request this and we will see what we can do.

Re-Alliance have been working with School of the Earth Nea Guinea on the ‘Wind Mobile’ project, an action research project aiming to develop low-cost, locally manufactured micro wind turbines. The turbines can be used for cost-effective mobile phone charging services for refugees and IDPs within camps and settlements. We are looking for interested groups within the Re-Alliance network to create, together with our designer, a micro wind turbine design for their local context. This will involve having several online calls to get feedback on where the group works and what it does and to assess what materials, tools and skills are available locally. Following the calls, an initial small wind turbine design will be produced by our designer, which will be shared with the group to review. In the longer term, we can look into the possibility of building the system locally if this seems feasible. If you would like to work with our designer to create a micro wind turbine design, please email Kostas at School of the Earth: info@neaguinea.org. Please include in your email the name and location of your organisation and tell us a bit about your work and why you are interested in micro wind turbines. Locally manufactured wind-electric systems can empower communities to produce their own electricity. By emphasizing the use of local resources, both in terms of materials and tools and skills and expertise, both people and place are empowered. Turbines can be built by recycling and up-cycling waste materials and by collaborating with international technological and manufacturing networks, based on open-source knowledge exchanges. In this context, the ‘Wind Mobile’ project aims to develop a set of micro wind turbine designs for wind-electric mobile phone charging solutions within camps and settlements. Micro wind turbine designs have being developed as part of the ‘Wind Mobile’ project in collaboration with KOC Bridges to Peace https://www.bridgestopeace.org/ in Côte d'Ivoire, with Fablab Winam https://www.fablabwinam.org/ in Kenya, with Community Creativity For Development - CC4D https://cc4d.tech/ in the Rhino Refugee Camp in Uganda, and with the Habibi.Works https://habibi.works/ makerspace near the Katsikas refugee camp in Ioannina, Greece. The ‘Wind Mobile’’ project is supported by Re-Alliance and is developed within the School of the Earth Nea Guinea ‘Energy for a Common Future’ project, with the scientific support of the Rural Electrification Research Group (RurERG) of SmartRue (Smart Grids Research Unit ECE NTUA), and in collaboration with IEEE Greece Section SIGHT.

Many of our newer Re-Alliance members and followers will not know of Paul Mellett, who died ten years ago last Sunday. Paul, or Paulo as he was known more recently to friends, was responsible for much of the inspiration behind Re-Alliance and in some way for its foundation. After contracting Leukaemia at the age of 19 in 1998, he vowed while in hospital that if he recovered he would do something useful with his life. Thankfully he did and in the 14 years that followed he became a strong climate activist, a campaigner for the rights of minorities, and passionately concerned about the state of the planet and its soils. He married Ruth Andrade, chair of trustees of Re-Alliance, and through her became a strong influence on the work of LUSH and its support for farmers. It is a tragedy that during his work with them he contracted Malaria in Ghana in 2014 and died in Brazil from complications that followed. At his funeral his friends, many of them also innovators and activists, formed the Blueprint network, to further regenerative thinking in humanitarian response. As a network of friends and colleagues much of this was realised in their own practice, and some years later it was felt that if the network was to grow and make a significant difference, it was necessary to formalise it into an NGO. Re-Alliance was dreamt up at a meeting at the LUSH offices following a Spring Prize event in 2018 and founded as an NGO in 2019 with a small grant from LUSH to get it off the ground. Many of the Blueprint group were among its first members. I sadly never met Paulo, but in early 2018 while I was working for The Lemon Tree Trust on refugee gardens I came across a video of him and Ruth talking about their work and felt strongly that it was these values and principles, rather than those of LTT that I wanted to represent. On Sunday, in his memory, Re-Alliance hosted a small gathering of friends, family members and those who have been taught or influenced by Paulo to share stories of what he inspired in them, and the things they have been doing since. While the event was of course tinged with sadness, it was also warm and humorous. Individuals shared stories of someone who was tenacious and committed, full of joy, jokes and energy, and who lived out his values of Earth Care, People Care, Fair Share – the permaculture principles that also underpin Re-Alliance. Others who couldn’t be there sent in tributes or poems, including the one below from Hieroglyphic Stairway by Drew Dellinger which I feel I’d like to pass on. This, along with our newsletter this month, and the stories of the work we have been doing with you all, are dedicated to Paulo’s memory. "it’s 3:23 in the morning and I’m awake because my great great grandchildren won’t let me sleep my great great grandchildren ask me in dreams what did you do while the planet was plundered? what did you do when the earth was unravelling? surely you did something when the seasons started failing? as the mammals, reptiles, birds were all dying? did you fill the streets with protest when democracy was stolen? what did you do once you knew?" Hieroglyphic Stairway by Drew Dellinger

Re-Alliance participated in the annual UK Shelter Forum, held at Arup on 14th May. Our presentation introduced the Guidelines Project we are currently working on, piloting regenerative approaches to settlement design with partners in the field, and compiling materials from these that can be shared with community members and local practitioners elsewhere and adapted for other contexts. Re-Alliance was almost a lone voice in prioritising regenerative rather than sustainable or climate resilient approaches, or in looking at how we might better support local responders when international help is scarce. There was also scant mention of the excellent Sphere Unpacked guide to Nature Based Solutions, which, alongside ourselves, is geared towards community practitioners. The Shelter Cluster seems well aware of the challenges they are facing, but like much of humanitarian assistance, continues to focus more on giving to and less on working with. Regeneration and Community Involvement in Shelter and Self Recovery Re-Alliance's Mary Mellet shares her reflections below. Following on from my visit to the shelter forum I have been musing on what exactly ‘Regenerative’ shelter can look like in the displacement context. Shelter is the point at which people are separated from their immediate natural surroundings, the point of division between the natural and the human realm. Necessarily so; total exposure to the increasingly harsh elements of extreme heat, heavy rainfall, bitter cold and wind will kill people.The needs for privacy and security are also paramount to give safety in dangerous times. Building shelters requires resources. Even natural resources, such as lime, mud, timber and straw still need to be extracted from the environment; so ending their part in any regenerative cycle, beyond composting down at the end of their use. Usually, they will not produce seed, increase water retention, build soil health or create an abundance of biodiversity within their footprint. Yes, there are mitigation measures, such as reducing the carbon footprint using renewable resources, maximising biodiversity through green roofing, rain water harvesting using gutters and storage tanks. But all these measures are within the sphere of sustainability - minimising impact -  not regeneration. They do not usually add net gains to the natural environment. It is the people within the buildings that can actively engage to improve the environment and become part of a regenerated whole system. It is they who can grow plants, compost wastes and improve soils. And thus the shelter sustains the life of the people who are embedded in a regenerative whole system. Shelter can only be regenerative within a whole-system which creates a home for the regenerative humans who become integrated within the natural, self-sustaining systems of life. Without the whole, there can be no ‘regenerative’ shelter. The below diagram visualises the differences between aid, sustainability and regeneration. So how do we apply these lofty ideals of regenerated communities to the pressurised context of disaster and displacement? Political tensions, lack of funding, degraded unsuitable lands and limited time seem to limit choices and restrict activities to the siloed shelter delivery model, often resulting in imported tents, and distributed tarpaulins with limited lifespans. I was genuinely inspired by the dogged, pragmatic and experienced women working for INGOs in shelter provision who stood to talk about how they balanced these competing needs and who were well aware of the complexities and limitations of the system and the compromises that must be made to keep people alive. The pioneering cross-sectoral work undertaken by Save the Children and fire-safety academics felt like a paradigm shift that transcended the usual siloed boundaries. There is also much work being done at the design level for imported solutions, the academics at the Shelter forum were doing complex work in analysing building performances, organisations were proving that funding more resilient designs were both more sustainable and cost-effective and there was more of an emphasis on using natural materials. However, in many ways some of the academic work felt like using a teacup to bail water on a sinking ship. The teacup is excellently researched, they have consulted on its design, it has been proven to be water-tight, light to ship, easy to use and resilient to chipping, it is even made of natural materials and printed with culturally appropriate decorations. For the few that use the teacups it is a great help in bailing water and is sustaining life while they stay afloat a while longer. But a smaller and smaller proportion of those in need will ever be given teacups and meanwhile the boat is going down. In this age of polycrisis, the available share of funding is decreasing. Self recovery is now by far the largest proportion of shelter provision following displacement and disaster. Perhaps the root question is: “how do we effectively work with communities to enable greater capacity for self recovery?” For this we need to look at where self recovery is working, where community participation is at its most engaged, and also at where it fails. At the next Shelter forum, I would love to hear from social scientists who understand how resilient communities work, community activists who banded together to get the resources their people needed and householders who have built their own shelters following disasters. The plethora of technical solutions could be enhanced by a clearer understanding of how to enable community involvement which leads to good decision making, access to resources and increased self recovery. My question to myself and colleagues at Re-Alliance, is how do we empower communities to make decisions that will best serve them in the long term, to a place within the self-sustaining regenerative systems of life and away from the trappings of modern solutions. As the climate crisis worsens, we all need to transition our ways of thinking and being in the world. How can we work together in this transition in a way that is truly empowering of local decision making?

Dedication The Re-Alliance team would like to share this resource with the following dedication: In solidarity with all the women of Gaza who created roof gardens for themselves, their families, and their communities. We hope for a time of peace and freedom when the seeds that are planted are allowed to flourish. Context This illustrated resource has been produced from the learnings of both desk based research, and action research projects that we piloted in partnership with Re-Alliance Members GUPAP (Gaza Urban & Peri-Urban Agriculture Platform) and Sporos Regeneration Institute as part of our wider Regenerative Camps and Settlements Guidelines Research. Keep an eye on our social media, newsletter and re-alliance.org/publications to be notified about other resources. The Guide This guide is aimed at community level organisations and actors, for direct use with communities. The guide is illustration-led, with the aim to reduce the barriers of illiteracy and language. The guide is split into both ‘Building a Garden on the Roof’ and ‘Cultivating on the Roof’ and covers topics such as materials needed, safety considerations, construction guidance, seed saving and organic fertilisers. Download the guide here This guide is currently being translated into a range of languages. If you would like this guide to be made available in a specific language please get in touch at contact@re-alliance.org to request this and we will see what we can do.

Re-Alliance’s Mary Mellet reviews different designs, including the treebog, urine separators and simple container loos. This article was originally published in Permaculture Magazine's summer issue 116. Above: Winnie Tushabe from YICE Uganda presenting their EcoSan composting toilet There are many things to love about compost toilets; they’re low cost and cycle nutrients back to the earth rather than flushing away as waste. But how do you navigate the different designs and styles? Over the last six months, Re-alliance has helped build different types of composting toilets with refugee communities in Uganda and Kenya. Our aim is not to promote individual technologies, but to enable a choice for the most appropriate design in a given context. Instead of toilet ‘equality’ where the world follows the Western model of polluting and wasteful flushing toilets, we’re advocating for toilet ‘solidarity’, where the Western and majority world transition in tandem to regenerative sanitation solutions. These work with the nutrient cycle to create health and abundance from our waste instead of pollution and harm. Unless you built your own house, you probably didn’t get to choose which type of toilet it had; the majority of houses in the UK come with a flush toilet connected to the sewage network. But we do get a choice in any subsequent toilets, the toilet for the home office down the garden or the second toilet you install to accommodate a growing family. These extra loos could all be compost toilets. Here we look at two designs our partners have built in East Africa and then overview options that you could adopt for your own project – there’s a compost loo to suit most contexts. The Treebog in Kakuma Refugee Camp, Kenya More than 182,000 people live in Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya, which was formed in 1992. Farming and Health Education, our local partner, is a community-based organisation which uses permaculture design principles to increase resilience by working with people to grow their own fresh food. Pictured right: FHE's Treebog, credit to Marcelin Munga Working with degraded soils and without the money for external fertilisers, growers in Kakuma understand the advantages of healthy soil and so the compost and fertility created by the treebogs are valued. In this pilot, two double treebogs were built and productive trees were planted around the toilets. Because these toilets are for communal use, it is useful that the treebog design does not include urine separation, to ensure little change in behaviour is needed from the toilet users. A carboniferous cover material, such as wood shavings or leaves, is added after using the toilet. The cover material prevents odours and flies, as well as maintaining the required carbon to nitrogen balance for healthy composting. We worked with Jay Abrahams, who invented the treebog, and he explained, “A treebog is a platform mounted toilet seat or squat, in a cubicle, surrounded by closely planted, fast growing and productive trees and shrubs. This arrangement enables the faeces and urine to be deposited on the soil surface in an aerobic chamber underneath the platform where the solids are composted into soil and the liquids soak into the earth below, feeding the root zone of the planted species surrounding the treebog. The trees enhance liquid take-up and composting of the solids and can also produce fruit, nuts and coppiced wood. When full, treebogs are closed and the contents are left to compost, being safely emptied after about a year to 18 months, once the wastes have been fully composted to soil. Depending on the amount of users, some treebogs never need to be emptied and the composted waste just continues to feed the trees. The trees and shrubs also create a habitat for wildlife, increasing the biodiversity of the area.” EcoSan Toilets in Nakivale Uganda In the Nakivale refugee camp in Uganda, refugees are given a small plot of land to build a dwelling and farm food on. Our partner organisation YICE (Youth Initiative for Community Empowerment) is working with families to create kitchen gardens but yields are limited because the soil is poor. Pictured right: YICE Uganda's EcoSan We worked with YICE to build eight urine diverting dry toilets (or ‘ecosan toilets’) for families. By separating the urine and faeces, the volume of composting waste is reduced, extending the capacity of the compost chamber and giving an immediate source of fertiliser in the form of urine, which, when diluted 1:20 with water, is an excellent fertiliser rich in nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. Diverting the urine away stops the compost chamber from becoming anaerobic and smelly and the addition of wood ash, after using the toilet, acts as a dehydrating cover material. This design used recycled plastic barrels as containers for the faeces, which ensures no ground pollution. Once nearly full, the barrel is moved aside and replaced with a fresh barrel. With the hot composting achieved inside the barrels, compost can be created in under 12 months in the Ugandan climate. The compost is used to enrich the soil around fruiting trees and bushes. Closed Loop Sanitation ‘Create no waste and produce a yield’ Re-alliance is not alone in advocating for compost toilets as a sanitation solution; Oxfam, Wateraid and Tearfund have also built compost toilets at various scales and the South African government is building them at a national level. However, when these projects are viewed solely as a sanitation solution, the production of compost is often seen as a problem to dispose of rather than a resource and the toilets are not well accepted. By integrating the toilets with existing food growing projects, the outputs are more likely to be valued and used for soil enrichment, increasing food security and biodiversity in tandem with improving sanitation. As YICE director Noah Ssempijja commented recently, “At last we may have found a solution to our poor soil fertility”. However, caution, careful management and observance of national and regional regulations are needed as untreated human excreta can transmit diseases. The myth to resist though, is that water-based systems are more hygienic than composting systems. With colonialism, the West exported the idea of flushing toilets as a clean, safe means of disposing of waste. But this denies the fact that adding human waste to water is a vehicle for pollution and disease if the water is not properly treated. The United Nations’ 2017 World Water Development Report stated, “In all but the most highly developed countries, the vast majority of wastewater is released directly to the environment without adequate treatment, with detrimental impacts on human health, economic productivity, the quality of ambient freshwater resources, and ecosystems.” Unfortunately, the problem continues in the UK, with Surfers Against Sewage stating in their 2022 Water Quality Report that “Over the course of 2020 and 2021, sewage has been dumped into the ocean and rivers around the UK more than 770,000 times”. With proper siting and management, compost toilets are safe, as is the compost they create. Joseph Jenkins writes in his well researched The Humanure Handbook: “As long as they are combining their humanure with a carbonaceous material and letting it compost, thermophilically or not, for at least a year (an additional year of ageing is recommended), they are very unlikely to be creating any health problems.” Advice on the use of compost varies, many types of food have been grown safely from humanure compost, and Jenkins argues for its use on most food crops, but harm caused by mismanagement can also be imagined. As a result, the Centre for Alternative Technology recommends its use only on fruit bushes and trees, which don’t absorb pathogens up their woody trunks, and on ornamental plants. Pictured left: Winnie Tushabe and Jean-Paul from YICE Uganda with compost from their Ecosan Toilets Whichever system you choose, the benefits remain attractive: less expensive, less polluting and a creator of compost and fertiliser. Below is a guide for choosing a compost system, with references you can go to for more information. I do hope you find a loo that suits you, and, if you are considering a second toilet in your household, you might take the dive and go waterless. You’re sure to learn a lot along the way while saving money and water, reducing pollution and feeding plants. Which Composting Toilet is Best for You? For all the solutions listed here you will need an outside space for the compost to be made and/or stored and used, this could be a garden or courtyard. Container-based Compost Toilet inside an Existing Home or Building where Space is Limited This scenario would also include compost toilets inside mobile homes and boats. Here you can create a DIY solution or buy an off the peg unit. Both have limited capacity so are suitable for household scale use, but not larger scale frequent use. Pee, poo and toilet paper are held within a sealed container, such as a plastic bin, and covered with sawdust or other organic cover material. The container contents are emptied into a compost bin or bay, ensuring the top is well covered by organic matter. You can choose to include urine separation which reduces the volume of waste and creates a plant fertiliser; most off-the-peg solutions use urine separation. Several compost bins or bays will be needed to rotate between – one curing the other filling. Advantages: Cheapest and simplest solution to build. Useful in places with limited space. Can create fertile compost and urine fertiliser. Disadvantages: Emptying and management of composting system required. Examples of off-the-peg designs: Loveable Loo, Trobolo, Wee Hooses Compost Toilets. Further Resources Best book: The Humanure Handbook: Shit in a Nutshell, 4th edition, by Joseph C. Jenkins http://humanurehandbook.com for pdf downloads Best online resources: HumanureHandbook.com - How to build a simple compost toilet https://humanurehandbook.com/downloads/Loo_Construction.pdf Best overview of composting system: How to Make Humanure Compost with a Composting Toilet, Happen Films https://youtu.be/JAcEvs3Bxjs Compost Chamber Systems Here, the composting happens within the toilet structure, so more space is needed for building. The toilets are usually elevated above the compost pile, with composting occurring at ground level. The contents are usually emptied once composting has occurred, after 12-24 months or sometimes just left to rot down. Often designs include a ‘twin chamber’ system, where one chamber is filled while the other is left to compost. Rotated large containers can also be used to receive the wastes and then switched over for composting (as in our Ugandan Ecosan examples). Most designs include urine diversion, with the treebog as a notable exception. Advantages: No handling or transportation of wastes needed. Fertile compost created. Urine fertiliser can be used to improve plant growth. Disadvantages: Compost chamber usually needs to be emptied after 12-24 months (although with infrequent use, emptying is reduced). Toilet seat is elevated so steps or a ramp are needed for access. Further Resources Best book: Lifting the Lid: An Ecological Approach to Toilet Systems by Peter Harper and Louise Halestrap Best online resources: Centre For Alternative Technology, Composting Toilets https://cat.org.uk/info-resources/free-information-service/water-and-sanitation/composting-toilets Best video: Centre for Alternative Technology, Webinar: Compost Toilets, an introduction, by Louise Halestrap https://youtu.be/mrdxd0o6sqA This article originally appeared in Permaculture Magazine, Summer issue 116: www.permaculture.co.uk/issue/summer-2023 The magazine is available in print and digitally. Each issue of Permaculture magazine is hand crafted, sharing practical, innovative solutions, money saving ideas and global perspectives from a grassroots movement in over 170 countries. To subscribe from anywhere in the world visit: www.permaculture.co.uk/subscribe or call 01730 776 582 (+44 1730 776 582)

Completed in 2019, Nepal’s first strawbale house showcases an earthquake shake table tested straw bale wall system costing about half the price of a conventional earth-quake resistant buildings. The lime and clay plastered straw bale walls provide super-insulation, moderating extreme temperatures, while the breathable clay and lime plasters prevent moulds and moisture build-up inside and durable lime render gives a water resistant external layer. Local people were trained in these easily replicable building systems while also using traditional Nepali building methods and local, affordable and sustainable materials. BACKGROUND In April and May 2015 Nepal was struck by two devastating earthquakes, killing 9,000 people and leaving hundreds of thousands homeless. In response, Builders without Borders looked for a test case site to promote and assess the appropriateness of strawbale buildings as earthquake resistant homes in Nepal. They found the Kevin Rohan Memorial Eco Foundation (KRMEF) in the Kathmandu valley, which already included a showcase of eco buildings. Close to Kathmandu the KRMEF centre was well placed to be a showcase for wider interest, was within the earthquake zone and provided access to a local network of skills and materials. Some of the other eco-builds at KRMEF are earthquake resistant made from stabilised earth blocks and recycled  bottles sat on foundations supported by rammed car tyres, described by the then DFID Humanitarian Shelter Advisor, Magnus Wolf-Murray as, “some of the best examples of low cost earthquake resilient buildings in Nepal." KEEPING IT LOCAL, KEEPING COSTS LOW Using local labour, materials and sharing skills with local people who worked alongside and in leadership roles meant this durable, safe, regenerative building was easily affordable. PAKSBAB (the organisation promoting straw bale building as an earthquake resilient option for Kashmir, Pakistan) estimate building costs to be about half of the cost of conventional earthquake resistant buildings. The addition of lime-stablised soil render has given the building a durable breathable finish and trained local women to continue the maintenance of this building and others. WHAT MAKES THIS REGENERATIVE? IMPACT ON PLANET Low carbon build using locally sourced natural materials which cut down on transportation impacts. Natural materials reduce pollution from building materials Passive ventilation, heating and cooling with super-insulation allow buildings to be comfortable without air conditioning. High thermal performance achieved without the use of energy-intensive, sometimes toxic, industrially manufactured insulation materials. Natural finishes avoid the environmental and health burden of VOCs. Little waste creation and bio-degradable, compostable building at the end of life. Cradle to cradle standard - transformative system with a positive impact on people and planet. IMPACT ON PEOPLE Local gardeners, mainly women trained into leadership roles for Lime Stabilized plastering. More affordable than other building techniques, including other earthquake resistant building methods. From all global shake tests, it's been repeatedly evidenced that strawbale buildings can remain standing through earthquakes, so potentially preserving life, shelter and livelihoods. Lime rendered straw bale buildings promote healthy air inside them because they are non-toxic and breathable. Lime or clay plastered straw bale walls will moderate temperature extremes through high insulation values and high thermal mass so increasing thermal comfort. Community capacity building through Increasing skills and income. Through training and use of local labour, people are empowered to build durably with straw and lime, going forward they are able to maintain their buildings and implement future projects. Comfortable, high performance culturally appropriate buildings provided as a resource for the community. COMBINED REGENERATIVE IMPACT This building system with a cradle to cradle design is a transformative system with a positive impact on people and planet. It combines both climate change adaptive and climate change mitigation technology. REGENERATIVE IMPACT How can straw bale building help to regenerate land and livelihoods after natural disasters? DISASTER RESILIENCE - FLOOD & EARTHQUAKE The combination of the uniquely appropriate resilience of straw bale buildings to earthquakes and of lime-stabilised soil to flood or monsoon damage, promote the possibility of a fully integrated disaster risk reduction solution for areas of high flood, monsoon and earthquake risk. Integrated systems of training local labour and of local materials use maintains and builds resources and resilience within the area. Local farmers are paid for straw, soil is dug from the foundations and used for free, labourers are paid for their work and women and men can be trained in new trades and skills, building community capacity and livelihoods. Partnering with an established local organisation gives access to an integrated network of sources of skilled labour, students and self-builders for training, materials availability, cultural insight and skills transfer. It allows projects to be inclusive and empowering and increases the learning of both the external trainers, organisations and local communities. SCALABILITY For earthquake resistance, PAKSBAB have completed 40 strawbale homes in Pakistan through training of trainers in seismically vulnerable northern Pakistan using the same load-bearing  wall system, proving upscaling of skills and production is possible.  ​ For flood and monsoon-rain resilient buildings, UK Aid funded Strawbuild training has led to the building of over 200,000 lime-stabilised soil houses in high flood-risk areas across southern Pakistan. Training in lime-stabilised soil can quickly equip diverse groups to become proficient in building resilient houses in their local, vernacular style, often predominantly of earth, that remain stable (do not dissolve) in water. All earth building elements can be stabilised with small amounts of lime - including foundations, wall blocks, mortars, floors, renders, plasters and roof screeds - so skilled labour and production through training can rabidly be upscaled.   ​ Strawbuild have authored  a manual in  Lime Stabilised Construction - a practical guide to spread best practice with engineers, masons and self-builders, as used in the training courses for many NGOs and International Humanitarian Organisations in the UKAid funded Flood Resilience Programmes of Southern Pakistan - Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, 2012-2016. ​ Lower build costs (by an average saving of 70%) represent an opportunity to build greater numbers of carbon-zero, high performance and disaster resilient houses at the same cost as fewer conventional earthquake and flood resilient buildings. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Straw and Lime Stabilized soil can be used in different combinations and there is scope for further pilot projects and demonstration builds. Bee Rowan from Strawbuild explains, “The next step is to continue to develop both technologies into a climatically appropriate and closer design synergy for full disaster risk reduction - from earthquake, flood and driving monsoon rain. Stawbuild and Builders without Borders plan to partner again in the straw-rich but high flood-risk Terai area of Nepal, using light straw, lime-stabilised soil walling systems, another easily replicate and appropriate building method using the same locally available materials for such areas of extreme climate at risk of both flood and earthquake." Independent, published evidencefrom IOM (UN's International Organisation for Migration) and ARUP Engineers, London, supports the use of lime-stabilised soil for flood resilient housing and details test results confirming high compressive strengths gained through stabilising soil with lime and the durability of the stabilised mixes in water for prolonged periods. Bee expects to return to Nepal this year (2020) to continue to support and promote these sustainable technologies and to partner local engineering and earth building companies in offering scalable solutions, such as within the design of resettlement villages, schools and community buildings. She is currently advising on similar uptake, design and training in Iraq, KRI (Kurdish Region of Iraq) Nigeria, Nicaragua and India, as well as within the UK. REPLICABILITY Plans from PAKSBAB can be adapted to use varied local straws, and bale presses can be made from locally sourced agricultural machinery or timber on site. Once the wall system is in place, other parts of the design can be adapted to suit local vernacular styles, materials and skills.  Lime is a widely available and most cultures have currant heritage use of lime, for example, in an IOM survey of vernacular buildings in Pakistan, 28% of the buildings built between 2010 and 2014 used lime. Following simple soil tests, an accurate formula can be found for all local soil types to make durable renders, plasters and light straw lime stabilized soil. CONTACT US Get in touch for links to the wider team of designers, implementers and trainers via Bee Rowan at Strawbuild.